As a contribution to an Indigenous Affairs issue focused on the social suffering of indigenous people around the world, Renée Sylvain describes the reality of the approximately 100,000 San people that live in southern Africa. They suffer from deprivation of land, autonomy, dignity and social cohesion, which has created economic and psychological insecurity. Symptoms of this condition that manifest in San culture today are alcoholism, high risk behavior, intergenerational alienation and violence.

In Botswana, the dominant Tswana ethnic group disregards the indigenous ethnicity of the San. After the government legally dispossessed them of their territories, they were classified as Remote Area Dwellers, a generic term for rural poor people. This classification subjects them to aggressive development programs that overlook issues of ethnicity at the root of their social suffering. The case of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve is cited and described as a process that has highly victimized the San, resettling them to new villages characterized by poverty, alcoholism and despair.

The story of the San in Angola revolves around militarization and relocation. San were recruited or coercively conscripted to fight in the Angolan war for independence in the 1960s, then soldiers were co-opted in 1970s liberation movements in Namibia and later relocated to a South African army base in the 1990s. Nearly three decades of civil war in Angola have led to severe food insecurity, discrimination, and health problems for the San living there. Since ceasefire in 2002, Angolan society has had to absorb the return of 400,000 refugees and the demobilization of 80,000 soldiers. Former San soldiers are heavily impacted by the experience of war, resulting in alcoholism and domestic and intra-community violence.

During colonial rule in Namibia, San were dispossessed of their native territories. Today they live and work on white-owned cattle ranches, in government resettlement camps or in urban squatter settlements. San men and women suffer ethnic discrimination such as drastically unfair wage rates that tie them to their employers in systems of debt-bondage. Often the only nutritional item they can buy is beer brewed on the cattle posts. There are reports of child slavery and sexual abuse by the dominant ethnicities there. San have assimilated some of the cultural norms of these ethnic groups, such as sexism; domestic violence and alcoholism are now rife in San communities. Sylvain describes the social situation surrounding illicit brewing and cuca-shops that sell beer on credit to San in an urban zone of Namibia. It has led to gangs and sex work for young San, increased incidence of rape among San women by San and non-San men and raised the risk of HIV infection. Furthermore, when San seek health care at medical centers, they are confronted by discrimination by non-San medical workers.

Sylvain notes that damage suffered in intra-community and family relationships among the San is severely debilitating to their culture because strong kin networks are a fundamental constitutive element of their ethnic identity.

Prepared by Megan Glore

This short film provides a case study for participatory forest management in South Africa, looking at the case of a nature reserve on the east coast. It tells of the struggle faced by local indigenous group to regain access to natural resources found in the area, resulting in the joint management of the area.

Synopsis and Review

The Dwesa forest on the east coast of South Africa was one of the last remaining indigenous forests in the country. To protect the area it was declared a nature preserve with limited access in the 1930’s, ignoring the large indigenous population in the area dependent on its resources such as game and seafood, medicine, wild food, and building materials. It is also a spiritual place, sacred to the local community. Once it was declared a preserve the local indigenous community was restricted from using the area even though the white population was able to own cabins and hotels in the reserve. Tensions began to build between the local community and nature reserve officials, especially after the reserve was completely closed in 1974. Fuelled by the political environment of the country at the time, tensions reached a peak in the 1990’s. And in 1994 members of the local community “invaded” the reserve, hunting game and collecting resources. Eventually the community began to raise awareness of their struggles and complaints and approached the nature reserve officials to conduct negotiations regarding use of the area. Land ownership was also discussed and after lengthy discussions the government agreed to return control of the reserve to the local community if they put a management system in place. Through the creation of a community property association (CPA) and land trust, the community began to take control of the reserve and its resources. They are now allowed to use their traditional resources in a controlled and sustainable fashion monitored by the community itself.

This film, while sometimes disjointed, provides a good example of the debate surrounding conservation and indigenous rights. Through interviews with community members that have lived through and participated in the transition from government controlled preserve to community managed area, it provides a fine example of the conflict that arises from non-participatory modes of conservation and the progress that can be made when the community is consulted and involved in the management and conservation process. However, it does have gaps begging to be addressed. For example, while it discusses in depth the traditional uses of the forest and the community’s traditional ecological methods for managing the forest, there is no mention of the effects of population increase on these traditional methods or the use of the forest today. And it would have been more satisfying to receive a more detailed explanation of how the transfer back to the community took place and is managed today beyond the issuing of collection permits and local enforcement. Despite its sometime cursory nature, the film is good demonstration of participatory resource management.

Prepared by Erin Smith